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Equitable Disciplinary Literacy Instruction For Students in Poverty

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This blog is written by Doris Walker-Dalhouse and Victoria Risko to advocate for strong literacy instruction that benefits all students, with a particular emphasis on literacy instruction for students living in poverty. When we think of strong literacy support for some of our most vulnerable students, we are keenly aware that initiatives to provide educators with professional development to support children living in poverty are being cancelled at the federal level even though progress with such programs indicate progress.  

Stay tuned — registration information for their upcoming webinar will be coming soon, and we can’t wait to continue the conversation with you!

Literacy Instruction for our Most Vulnerable Students  

            According to the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), 1 in 7 school-age children lives in poverty, which has a major impact on their education. Approximately 16% of U.S. children (11.4 million) lived in poverty in 2022-2023, with a 13.4% poverty rate for school-age children (5-17). In 2026, there are indicators that the number of students living in poverty may be even greater with high, persistent child poverty rates paired with proposed or enacted federal funding cuts that threaten to reduce services for low-income students. 

National and local statistics indicate that overall children living in poverty continue to perform poorly on class assignments and mandated tests and they often have low participation in class literacy activities. These children most frequently live in inner city and rural areas or they may be children living in homeless shelters.  It is likely that these students are racially, linguistically, and culturally diverse (Najarro, 2022).  And while poverty cannot be traced to singular causes (e.g., racism, low paying jobs, insufficient health coverage), we are keenly aware that income equality within the last decade — world-wide — has widened the gap between those families that are challenged for food and housing security and those that are benefitting from increased wealth (Desmond, 2023).

            There is no doubt that educators who teach in high poverty areas face multiple challenges and these challenges include underfunded public schools where teacher tenure and retention are lowest, teacher turnover is high, and resources are limited. There is a long history associated with underfunded schools and resources in both rural and urban high poverty areas. As Gorski (2018) and others argue, “privilege begets privilege”. Students privileged to attend well-resourced schools with stability of educators in place long term are on a trajectory to receive continuous supports that are needed for all students, but frequently not available or sustained in high poverty schools. 

Instructional Inequities

            A “sameness” of instruction for all students conflates equality (e.g., belief that fairness requires same for all) with equity when diverse histories and experiences require differentiation. (Wells, 2011). Not only is instruction not differentiated for students’ capabilities and needs, but frequently there is a lack of culturally relevant materials (Smagorinsky, Lakly, & Johnson, 2002), most notably the use of texts and materials in which students do not see themselves or their communities (Ascenzi-Moreno & Quifiones, 2020). A “Null Curriculum” (Milner, 2017) developed in some states, with punitive actions against schools that address racism, racial histories, and cultural differences, denies explicit attention to students’ histories and identities.  Milner (2018c) argues that students are not given a “fighting chance to maximize their capacity and humanity”. Additionally, intervention programs, such as Response to Intervention (RTI) that is widely implemented, have inadequate investigations of their effectiveness and response to inequities (Artiles, 2015).

Weak and Failed National Policies

            There is a long history of disappointing outcomes of federal funding intended to support the learning of students living in poverty. A “deeply flawed policy legacy of overemphasizing standardized-test scores” (Najarro, 2022, p. 3) is the product of the dominant, White middle-class culture in the United States. Over-reliance on standardized tests fail to provide information about students’ interests, their feelings of belonging, how well the instruction represents students’ cultural backgrounds, and what additional resources and opportunities may be needed (Najarro, 2022).

Among weak or failed programs are the following. The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) (2001), with the associated Even Start Family Literacy Program, overall failed to improve K-3 literacy instruction for students living in poverty (St. Pierre, Ricciuti, & Rimdzius, 2005). Similarly, funding efforts (e.g., Gates Foundation, and Title 1) for high poverty schools have had virtually no impact (Noguera & Wells, 2011). The hard work required by national laws to address inequities—giving all students a level playing field with additional resources and opportunities as needed– has been “crumbling” (Najarro, 2022) for at least the last decade.

Addressing Inequities

            Addressing inequities, especially as they relate to impoverished students and communities, is a world-wide issue and is met with different responses. One approach has been to provide equal input for all students, such as providing equal funds for schools or the same curriculum for all. Described as taking an equality approach, the emphasis is placed on giving all students the same opportunities to succeed. In contrast, an equity approach, is grounded in the concepts of diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) to differentiate instruction, provide additional resources and opportunities when needed, and build on students’ culture and traditions while expanding their knowledge and experiences.

            Starting in 2016, there was an expansion of an equity focus—multiple districts in the United States, for example, reported heightened interest and proposed actions at the district level to address DEI (Najarro, 2022). Unfortunately, the word “equity” became a trigger for pushback as early as 2018 (Sawchuk, 2022). This pushback, both legislative and public, represented fears of losing “strong programs” for those who were already succeeding in schools.

Initiatives to provide educators with professional development in the areas of diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) are being stopped in their infancy (Illeana Najarro, Education Week, September 6, 2022) even though progress is reported.  Added to the push to eliminate DEI initiatives are book bans that began to appear in March 2023 and were put in place in 86 school districts across the U. S. Specifically, these bans focus on books with LGBTQ characters, characters of color, and books that address inequities associated with diversity, race, and racism. Najarro (2022) argues that these initiatives represent legislators’ and special interest groups’ retaliation against apparent progress in meeting DEI goals. 

This issue of providing curricula that is relevant – relevant to students’ culture, their histories, their interests, and their instructional needs – is crucial for teachers to address if we expect to stem “learning poverty”. Amid movements to abandon or lessen the impact of changes erasing diversity represented among our students, educators can either be overwhelmed or take these actions as an “urgent message to forge ahead”.

Goal for Instruction: Addressing Disciplinary Literacy and Teaching What is Relevant to Students’ Culture, Histories, Interests, and Instructional Needs

            To meet this goal, we describe three instructional actions (a) that sustain students’ cultural histories, (b) while advancing their knowledge and literacy development, and (c) addressing their questions and needs.  Each of these actions are developed more fully in our text, Equitable Literacy Instruction for Students in Poverty (Walker-Dalhouse & Risko, 2024).

1.Culturally Sustaining Disciplinary Literacy (Rachelle S. Savitz & Janelle Williams, 2024). In their 2024 example and through multiple other publications, Savitz and Williams describe methods for enhancing both disciplinary reading and writing, and positioning students as knowledgeable and active participants in their learning. Aligning with national and state standards, units of instruction focus on content that is both relevant to students’ prior knowledge and interests and that advances academic learning.  For example, instruction might focus on “monitoring and minimizing human impact on the environment”. 

            Taking a problem-solving approach, students engage in generating questions about “equitable access to clean water in their community and globally”.  The topic of clean water is particularly important in Michigan (where this instruction occurred) with its issue of problematic conditions related to water quality (e.g., Flint water crisis, infestation of zebra mussels, Nestle corporation’s use of water, etc.). Inquiry questions generated with students might include: How people are taking action on equitable access to clean water in my community and globally or How do we decide if information provided is trustworthy and credible on environmental issues such as clean water (Savitz and Janelle Williams in Walker-Dalhouse & Risko, 2024, pg. 33).  

            Texts are purposely selected to demonstrate a wide range of perspectives and evidence related to claims about clean water. Students examine scientific texts, analyzing claims and evidence provided, and consider what can be learned from a range of perspectives and challenges that scientists face. Disciplinary writing (that meets writing standards) engages students in taking up authentic perspective and problem-solving methods that address potential water hazards. Letters of advocacy with proposed methods of change or problem-solving methods are written to community agencies and community leaders. Class discussions expand students’ knowledge and abilities to express their understandings of the issue and potential problem-solving methods. Throughout these applications connections are made to students’ lives, their neighborhoods, and their decisions illustrating how science and technical advances related to clean water are connected to their lives.

2. Disciplinary Learning through Multimodal Story Telling (Blaine E. Smith, 2024). Blaine Smith demonstrates how story telling with digital multimodal composing supports science learning for middle school students. With Smith’s guidance, students generated ideas to integrate visuals, sounds, and text when composing a science narrative. Prior to composing their own texts, students read multiple texts, including web-based science texts, gaining scientific knowledge about selected topics and issues – issues that were relevant to the students and their communities. For example, learning about climate change and its effect on local farmers engaged students in robust conversations about changes, theories related to these changes, and their impact.

             Students also examined published multimodal texts and then engaged in learning how to be intentional in their use of visuals, sounds, and annotations to convey important information. Students engaged with complex scientific issues while learning how to express their newly learned science knowledge in a variety of formats that were meaningful to them and their peers. Class discussions and added readings supported students’ knowledge development and perspective taking, enhancing their learning as they generated connections to issues that affected them and their communities.

3. Embedding Skills and Strategy Instruction within Authentic Contexts across the Grades for Multilingual Learners (Pacheco, McKee, and Lai, 2024). Pacheco, McKee, and Lai demonstrate how a text focusing on character education can engage multilingual students in thinking about the challenges they face as newcomers in a school and community and the actions they take to resolve their dilemmas. They describe how Ms. George (a sixth-grade teacher) whose students (from six different home countries) engages in text discussions. Asking students to reflect on difficult decisions in their everyday experiences and how their actions are similar to characters within the texts is a focus of their text discussions. And when holding these text discussions, students are encouraged to use their home languages as needed to represent their thinking.

            One example shared by Pacheco and his colleagues focused on the text, Little Things are Big Things (Colon, 1961). Ms George and her students analyzed the text using a graphic organizer to identify “what makes a good decision” and “what are good actions” when facing conflicts. Connections to students’ personal lives and decision making and how individuals historically have worked toward goodness (even when faced with racism as in the Colon (1961) text supported the students’ personal growth in overcoming difficult environments in which they live while advancing their disciplinary knowledge and text comprehension.

            Across the above examples of disciplinary instruction, these principles guide their implementation:

  • Teaching actions are intentional and provide access to knowledge building in ways that honor students as individuals.
  • Instruction is embedded in the view that school and curriculum provide access to equitable opportunities that support students’ comprehension as literacy and disciplinary learners.

Conclusion

            As educators, we must dignify our economically marginalized students by making visible their multiple interests, histories and capabilities. Instruction described in this blog offers three examples that demonstrate a commitment to honor students’ culture and traditions while expanding their disciplinary knowledge and experiences.

Doris Walker-Dalhouse, PhD, professor emerita at both Marquette University and Minnesota State University Moorhead, is a former 4th -6th grade teacher in high-poverty schools including  the Marva Collins Preparatory Program at Linlee School in Lexington, KY. She served for four years as the Director of the Sudanese community-based reading clinic for K-refugee students (Moorhead, MN) funded by the Otto Bremer Foundation and is a member of the Marquette University Autism Initiative. Her co-authored books include Be That Teacher! Breaking the cycle for struggling readers (Risko, 2012) and Equitable Literacy Instruction for Students in Poverty (Risko, 2024) and an edited book Culturally sustaining literacy pedagogies: Honoring students’ heritages, literacies, and language (Cantrell and Lazar, 2022). She is a past member of the Board of Directors of ALER, IRA, and LRA; past coeditor of the Research in the Classroom column (The Reading Teacher) and is President of the Reading Hall of Fame.

Victoria J. Risko, EdD, a professor emerita at Vanderbilt University, taught in the language, literacy and culture program within the Department of Teaching and Learning.  A former 1st and 4th grade teacher, Dr. Risko collaborated with educators across the grade levels and in high poverty and racially diverse schools. A past president of the International Literacy Association and the Association of Literacy Educators and Researchers, Dr. Risko has published in numerous journals and research handbooks. She is co-author of several books, including Be That Teacher!: Breaking the Cycle for Struggling Readers (with Walker-Dalhouse, 2012), Reading Assessment to Promote Equitable Learning (with Elish-Piper and Matthews, 2022), and Equitable Literacy Instruction for Students in Poverty (with Walker-Dalhouse, 2024).  A recipient of several national and international awards for contributions to research and literacy education, Dr Risko is a member of the Reading Hall of Fame.

Social Justice as Discipline Reconstruction

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Unit co-designed by Katelyn Zarr and Jessica McCullough

On a color-coded anchor chart are the ways historians read, write, and think: they interpret primary and secondary sources, identify bias, compare and contrast accounts, and ultimately synthesize information from multiple sources to create accurate narratives and timelines (Lent, 2017). While a concise (and visually appealing) resource, these practices cannot be taken exactly as they are, especially in K-12 schools. Underpinning these practices is the fact that the sources, accounts, and information to be interpreted are often one-sided, missing or entirely misrepresenting perspectives. What is required of educators [and students], then, is that the disciplines themselves are approached as pathways to social change, by which their texts, practices, and ways of knowing are continually questioned and reconstructed.

In our fifth-grade Causes of the American Revolution History Unit, this took the form of seeking out the perspectives of Black Americans, which were limited within district-provided textbooks and readily accessible primary and secondary sources in online databases. The very process of hunting for inclusive texts opened up a conversation between me and my fifth-graders: Why are only some perspectives prioritized, and, in turn, how can we amplify the voices of Black Americans when studying United States’ history? The snapshots below not only capture our search for multiple perspectives but also our reflections on the importance of doing so.

Questioning disciplinary texts can lead to the construction of inclusive and accurate pictures of history. When examining the Boston Massacre as one ‘cause’ of the American Revolution, for example, I noticed that our district textbook centers Paul Revere’s engraving, “The Bloody Massacre,” where British soldiers are depicted armed, against a row of white colonists, some wounded, some reaching to help one another, and some fleeing the square. While a biased depiction of the event itself, as many colonists, too, threw rock-filled snowballs at the soldiers, a key participant, Black American Crispus Attucks, is missing from the scene. I searched for alternate depictions of the event, pairing Paul Revere’s engraving with John H. Bufford’s, “Boston Massacre, March 5th, 1770,” which places Crispus Attucks front and center (Museum of the American Revolution, 2021). After joining the illustrations in a text set, my role in questioning texts, fifth-graders then compared and contrasted the accounts through a socratic seminar – drawing upon both to establish colonist and soldier involvement, infer deeper meanings, such as Attucks’ actions as a symbol of protection and independence, and contextualize the 13 Colonies as rooted in racism, a system perpetuated even in the media. By questioning which texts were included, and later, their contents, students were able to compare and contrast accounts to make sense of an event in its entirety and its connections to society at large.

Questioning disciplinary texts can amplify the joy and brilliance of Black Americans throughout history. Students’ inclusion and discussion of Attucks as a champion of independence and positive, social change left us eager to extend this work into writing. Using teacher, student, and librarian collected texts on Black Americans from the Revolutionary Era, including Crispus Attucks, Salem Poor, and Phillis Wheatley, students crafted biographies of their chosen ‘Revolutionary Hero.’ Only, when constructing the narratives or timelines of their hero’s role in the Revolution, students asserted the importance of learning from them today: Wheatley’s poems a means of social justice that can be continued today, Attucks an example of what it means to be a patriot, and Poor a symbol of unwavering bravery. By seeking out multiple accounts of history, students reconstructed the discipline by creating texts that amplified the perspectives and contributions of Black Americans that should have been included all along.

This Causes of the American Revolution Unit simply puts into action the pursuits of Dr. Gholdy Muhammad’s Historically Responsive Literacy Framework, where she asserts criticality, or examining and disrupting power structures, as a non-negotiable of teaching and learning (2023). Not only does criticality build empathy, connection, and perspective, but it allows us to understand the world [and the disciplines] entirely – to seek and sustain social justice. Beautifully, this often looks like pushing the disciplines themselves. As my fifth-graders engaged in reflective discussion on their reading and writing in consideration of multiple perspectives, they shared things like, “Why isn’t it [history] always done this way? Otherwise, we wouldn’t know the full story!” Their comments demonstrate the power of criticality as well as the brilliance and readiness of students to change the disciplines in the pursuit of racial justice.

References

Muhammad, G. (2023). Unearthing joy: a guide to culturally and historically responsive teaching and learning. Scholastic Inc.

Lent, R. (2017). Disciplinary literacy: a shift that makes sense. ASCD Express, 12(12).

Museum of the American Revolution. (2021, March 5). Boston massacre and propaganda: changing depictions of Crispus Attucks. https://www.amrevmuseum.org/boston-massacre-and-propaganda-changing-depictions-of-crispus-attucks. 

Jessica McCullough is a fifth-grade teacher in Southeastern PA. She is certified in grades 4-8, all subjects 4-6 and English Language Arts and Reading 7-8. She is currently a literacy M.Ed. student at West Chester University of PA with research interests in critical and disciplinary literacy.

‘Risky Texts’: Addressing the issue of race and historical marginalisation in the classroom

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By Sarah Ryan-Purcell

“I teach in an all-white classroom and so I don’t have any of your books in my classroom”

(Brooklyn Academy of Music Organisation, 2017).

As I listened to author Jacqueline Woodson share this quote from an unnamed educator during an interview on “difficult” subjects in young people’s literature, I felt exposed. I taught in an all-white classroom in Ireland last year. I don’t recall placing or using a single book by a Black author in my classroom. At the time, I might have reasoned – subconsciously – that such texts are more relevant in the American context. Suffice to say, I’ve come a long way. 

            My reading list is not the only thing that has changed since I commenced my Masters in Literacy Education at West Chester University, Pennsylvania. I have developed a whole new perspective on how knowledge is constructed, whose voices are represented, and what it means to prepare our students to participate in a diverse, yet unequal, world.

            I discovered Woodson’s picture books in the first semester of my Master’s program as Dr. Daris McInnis challenged us to select a ‘risky text’ which we could use as a read-aloud opportunity to engage in critical literacy with our students. I chose Mason’s (2010) These Hands, an intergenerational book in which a young boy named Joseph learns how his grandfather united with fellow Black labourers to protest racism in the workplace. Thanks to their actions, Joseph’s hands – and other hands the same colour as his – can do “anything in this whole wide world”! The choice felt risky, particularly for me. Since arriving to America, I have felt discomfort when discussing race with BIPOC students. I imagine that the students might be thinking, “Who does she think she is, teaching us about something she knows nothing about?”. However, over the past few months, I have learned to embrace this vulnerability. By allowing the students to see me learning alongside them, I shift the classroom dynamic. Authority becomes shared and knowledge becomes co-constructed. Enter: critical literacy.

            I started the read-aloud with a guided discussion of the front cover, using visual thinking strategies (VTS, 2021). One child excitedly exclaimed, “my skin!” as she pointed to the boy on the front cover of the book. Another student remarked that the boy’s skin colour would probably be a significant aspect of the storyline because “it always is”.

That comment lingered with me.

            Why is race “always” central when Black characters appear? Why are there so few books where Black children are simply present—neither celebrated nor victimized, but existing as fully realized protagonists? The answer, no doubt, lies in power. Perhaps an increase in publications of such books would mitigate the sense of ‘otherness’ that is still apparent in today’s society.      I was particularly uncomfortable discussing the contents of the fifth page, as I wondered aloud why the grandfather had not been allowed to mix the dough in the Wonder Bread factory. The students, though young, were keenly aware that this was a restriction placed on Black people by their white employers. At this point, we began to discuss instances of power in the story. Most of the students participating in this read-aloud were Black, and I felt a sense of guilt on the part of white people for the injustice represented in the story. The students readily noted that white people wouldn’t eat bread baked by a Black person, even if the Black workers were allowed to bake it. I felt almost as though I was further oppressing them as I prompted them to consider why white people wouldn’t eat bread baked by a Black person. They concluded that white people believed Black people ‘had germs’ and would ‘make them sick’. The students were not only offering their opinions. They were engaging in interdisciplinary meaning-making, drawing connections between history, social studies, and personal knowledge. Upon reflection, I realize the impact of that discussion in helping these students to own their history and learn about the oppression of their relatives in the not-so-distant past. However, in the moment, I felt as though I was unearthing generational trauma.  

            Our read-aloud session was an embodiment of critical literacy as the students interrogated historical social practices and analyzed dynamics of power in society (Lewison et al., 2008). However, one important aspect was absent from our discussion: taking initial actions to promote social justice. Consequently, my next step is to consider how I might develop this standalone read-aloud lesson into a critical literacy unit plan on racism and workplace discrimination. Racism is not simply a topic to be covered, but rather anti-racism and inclusion are values to be instilled across the curriculum, values which the students can uphold beyond their formal education. In reflecting upon this read-aloud, I am prompted to identify ways through which I could support my students to “disrupt the commonplace” and promote social justice in small but meaningful ways (Lewison et al., 2008, p.9). This is a question I do not yet have an answer to, but I shall pursue the answer across my career. 

            In conclusion, engagement with this risky text read-aloud challenged me to step out of my comfort zone as a teacher. By leaning into discomfort and allowing students’ voices to guide our discussion, I witnessed the power of risky texts to illuminate social injustices, leading students to connect historical oppression with contemporary realities. This experience has demonstrated that teaching about race and inequality is not simply a “nice to have” in the curriculum but is rather a moral necessity. As a result, I am committed to creating spaces where all students, particularly those from marginalized communities, feel valued and empowered to challenge the status quo. 

            I have come to understand that what is not in the classroom library can often tell you more about the classroom environment than what is available for reading. Furthermore, when educators embed dimensions of critical literacy into their classroom practice, they not only nurture critical thinkers but rather empower both themselves and their students to be agents of change. 

References

Brooklyn Academy of Music Organisation (2017, June 21). Jacqueline Woodson on “difficult” subjects in young people’s literature. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gcRwYLHcyzc

Lewison, M., Leland, C., & Harste, J. C. (2008). Creating critical classrooms: K-8 reading and writing with an edge. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Mason, M. (2010) These hands. Haughton Mifflin Harcourt.

Visual Thinking Strategies (2021) VTS, available: https://vtshome.org [accessed 03 May 2021].

Sarah Ryan-Purcell is a passionate primary school teacher from Cork, Ireland. Having obtained a B. Ed. in Education and Psychology at Mary Immaculate College, Limerick, Sarah is now pursuing a M. Ed. in Literacy Education at West Chester University, Pennsylvania where she is also working as a graduate assistant in the College of Education and Social Work. A proponent of discovery-based learning, Sarah loves to explore new countries, languages, and cultures, increasingly allowing these experiences to guide her classroom practice.

Doing History, Not Memorizing It: Using Historical Thinking to Reclaim Black Narratives

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by Dr. Shari Revels-Davis

Growing up, history class always felt like a timeline of dates, names, and events to memorize. Textbooks presented historical accounts as settled truth—rarely revealing that history is constructed through sources, perspectives, and power.

When Black history is taught this way, students often receive a simplified version of complex struggles and resistance movements, stripped of grassroots voices and community leadership. History books also record only the story of the oppressor, not that of the oppressed. For example, Ron DeSantis, the current governor of Florida, stated in his defense of the presentation of slavery in the history books, as well as annexing the AP Black History high school courses and eliminating other courses that are considered “DEI” by the white population.

DeSantis defended Florida’s 2023 Black history standards, which included a requirement to teach that “slaves developed skills which, in some instances, could be applied for their personal benefit”. He argued that this clause, which suggests some enslaved people used their skills to their advantage, was intended to highlight the “resiliency” of Black Americans and was written by scholars.

Instead of taking the oppressor’s word on how historical events occurred, disciplinary literacy shifts history instruction from memorization to investigation.

By engaging in the authentic practices of historians, students learn to question narratives, analyze evidence, and uncover stories that have long been marginalized or erased.

The Discipline Lens: How Historians Build Knowledge

Historians do not simply read for information. They:

  • Source documents to understand who created them and why
  • Corroborate multiple perspectives
  • Contextualize events within social and political systems
  • Examine bias and purpose

These skills are essential for understanding Black history purposefully and honestly.

The Problem with Textbook Narratives

Traditional historical texts often:

  • Emphasize major political leaders over community organizers
  • Minimize systemic racism in favor of “progress narratives.”
  • Frame resistance as isolated moments rather than sustained movements

For example, the Civil Rights Movement is often portrayed as a few peaceful protests led by famous figures, while ignoring decades of organizing, youth activism, and local leadership.

So what does this look like in practice? Instead of replacing the textbook, we can place it in conversation with other voices. A primary source counterstory investigation allows students to analyze whose perspectives are centered—and whose are absent.

Classroom Strategy: Primary Source Counterstory Investigation

Step 1: Provide a textbook account of a historical event (e.g., voting rights, desegregation, Reconstruction)

Step 2: Pair it with primary sources such as:

  • Black newspapers
  • speeches
  • letters
  • oral histories
  • photographs

Step 3: Students analyze using inquiry prompts:

  • Who created this source?
  • What perspective is represented?
  • What details are emphasized or omitted?
  • How does power shape this narrative?

Step 4: Students construct a revised historical account that includes multiple voices.

Student Impact

Teachers I work with report that inquiry-based history instruction leads to:

  • Deeper comprehension of historical causation
  • Increased engagement
  • Stronger argument writing
  • Greater awareness of systemic injustice

Students move from passive consumers of information to critical interpreters of the past.

Concluding Thoughts

History is not neutral. It is shaped by the voices we amplify and the ones we overlook. When we present historical struggles like the Civil Rights Movement as a handful of peaceful protests led by a few famous figures, we unintentionally flatten decades of organizing, youth activism, and local leadership into a simplified storyline. Our students deserve more than a highlight reel.

As educators, we have the opportunity—and responsibility—to complicate the narrative. By inviting students to examine primary sources, question dominant accounts, and seek out counterstories, we teach them that history is not something to read and forget but something to investigate and explore. We help them see that change is collective, contested, and ongoing.

Doing history in this way builds more than content knowledge. It builds critical thinkers who understand that whose story is told matters—and that they, too, are part of the historical record in the making.

Shari Revels-Davis is a dedicated and experienced educator passionate about multilingual learning and educational equity. As a veteran teacher, she has made significant contributions to the field of education, particularly in supporting multilingual learners (MLL). In addition to her work as an MLL teacher for the Chester County School District, she is the founder of the Hiram Revels East Educational Foundation, which focuses on advancing educational opportunities for diverse student populations.

Shari is currently waiting to be conferred her doctoral dissertation from Jackson State University after earning two master’s degrees. In addition, she is working to fulfill her goal of opening her own boarding school for underprivileged students in Las Cruces, New Mexico.

Fostering visual literacy skills with wordless picture books

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By Dr. Elke Schneider

What is visual literacy?

Visual literacy (VL) is a well-defined discipline that requires critical, aesthetic, and socio-emotional interpretation skills based on individual comprehension of visual images. These are all essential for being a successful literate citizen that can handle the massive visual flood of information related to image-rich digital media. For one, VL skills include the ability to identify and interpret messages explicitly or implicitly given through still images (photos, posters, drawings, paintings, sculptures) or moving images (videos, films, TV shows, performances). Critical, aesthetic interpretation of how visual features such as colors, visual perspectives, or specific art media (i.e., watercolors, collages, sketches, charcoal drawing) impact a reader/viewer emotionally is a crucial VL skills component. The expressive side of VL skills refers to the ability to create visual images that present information in either still images (drawings, sketches, graphic organizers/charts, photos) or moving images such as short video clips. According to research, both receptive and expressive VL skills are best taught explicitly.

Why do we need to explicitly focus on developing visual literacy skills?

In this day and age, the non-stop availability of visual imagery via digital devices presents students’ brains with the task to quickly, accurately and critically interpret massive amounts of visual imagery surrounded by no, minimal, or much printed texts. Therefore, it is paramount to assist students in learning to carefully filter through so much visual information so they do not fall prey to manipulation and misinterpretation of implicit or explicit messages embedded in visual materials. Moreover, research has shown that educators require more explicit training in strengthening students’ visual literacy skills. For middle and high school students, VL skills are essential in every subject area and thus are included in middle and high school ELA standards.

What are wordless picture books?

Wordless picture books (WLPBs) are books that present information solely through visual images. Some images may include wording as part of an image such as a poster with a message. Only book flaps and covers include traditional printed text such as book title, author name, publication information, and a summary about the book. Examples of WLPBs appropriate for middle and high school students are shared in Table 1. They include selective ideas for disciplinary integration in ELA, social studies, science/geography.  

Table 1: Examples of WLPBs for VL practice

Book referenceContent descriptionIdeas for use in content areas

Tan, S. (2007). The arrival. Arthur A. Levine Books.   
ISBN: 978-0439895293  
Virtual version: short https://youtu.be/vAay4myoEDE?si=KVj4wH2VR9mxl6pT    		Through detailed imagery in red charcoal drawings, readers learn about the emotional and physical hardships of one immigrant’s journey who in the end reunites with his family. Over 60 detailed images of immigrants of all ages in the end pages allow for varied, adolescent-appropriate critical aesthetic, social-emotional reflections.Social studies: migration history of the United States; relating images to historic events (i.e., WWI, II imprisoner treatments)

ELA: sequence of events for one or several characters, identifying emotions orally and in writing, cause-and effect, impact of different visual perspectives and aesthetics on the interpretation of visual information

Geography: identifying criteria for, cause and effects of ports of migration, drawing cause-effect graphics for geographic locations

Science: Using facial expressions of characters of various generations to discuss aging processes and causes; 

Wiesner, D. (2006). Flotsam. Clarion Books.  
ISBN: 978-0618194575
Virtual version: https://youtu.be/3MTKWnxzqvM    		In intricately detailed, often fantasy-driven water-color images, readers follow a teen who discovers an old camera at the beach that reveals lives of those who owned it in the past.Social Studies: Identifying details of photographs for historic fact interpretations

ELA: Usingimage details, practice describing details of sequence of events, items and characters with reasoning, or cause-effect, meaning discoveries of factual and fantasy elements.

Geography: Researching where the camera was prior to getting to the teen with reasoning based on photographs in the camera.

Science: Researching flotsam items from the story and others that can be studied scientifically; discussing the impact of water, salt/nature on certain materials over time.

Wiesner, D. (2011). Tuesday. Clarion Books.  
ISBN: 978-0395870822
Virtual version: https://youtu.be/JtQ4DdzCZMA?si=aI2OrD-T2nE9wulJ  		On a Tuesday night, frogs fly on lily pads to town to visit the town causing confusion before returning to their pond. The next week, pigs seem to be doing the same. This fantasy is illustrated in colorful, realistic watercolor technique displaying expressive, detailed animal and human faces.Social studies: Impact of the unusual on communities; cultural symbolism of frogs/pigs




ELA: Discussing fantasy elements and their explicit or implicit message through colors, perspectives and actions in visuals; personality studies of characters; symbolism

Science: Discussing the importance of gravity; researching what dreams are and how imagery gets created in the brain; life cycles of frogs

Banyai, I. (1998). Zoom. Puffin Books           
ISBN: 978-0140557749
Virtual version: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Kgi-RCEjOLw    		Via detailed, colorful images, readers are taken in surprising image sequences from a farm to a city, a ship, and an island providing ample practiceELA: Making predictions with supporting details and reasons; making hypotheses based on retracing evidence

Science: Discussing how hypotheses are made, on what revising hypotheses is based, and how hypotheses are tested based on detailed images

Geography: Discussing where on earth the different sites could be and how they could relate using details provided in the images

Social studies: Discussing differences, similarities and historic events that influence community lives; discussion of time period based on details in imagery

Banyai, I. (1998). Re-Zoom. Puffin Books       
ISBN: 978-0140556940		Readers are taken on a twisted image journey from an Egyptian pyramid to a jungle and a beach by zooming out of color-and-detail rich images that invite predictions turning page by page.ELA: Making predictions with supporting details and reasons; making hypotheses based on retracing evidence

Geography: Discussing where on earth the different sites could be and how they could relate using details provided in the images

Science: Experiencing how hypotheses are created and tested based on interpreting images; comparing jungle habitats to desert habitats in Egypt; discussing how perception is impacted by angles of selections if imagery;

Social Studies: Engaging in Egyptian culture studies based on detailed images and beyond

Why are wordless picture books useful in middle or high school?

Public misconceptions about WLPBs include that they are only appropriate for young children and not challenging enough to working for adolescent students. Moreover, explicit VL skills do not need to be taught explicitly. These misconceptions contradict research findings that highlight how interpreting WLPBs contain an intricate amount of explicit and implicit information that requires developed VL skills to comprehend. Furthermore, it entices middle and high school students to apply varied sophistication in oral and written engagement with these WLPBs. Research also points out many benefits for middle and high school students:

  • VL practice with WLPBs allows for in-depth engagement with essential middle and high school English Language Arts (ELA) Standards through VL practices such as retelling/summarizing image information, inferencing, predicting and revising prediction, compare-contrast, cause and effect interpretation of visual imagery.
  • These VL practices with WLPBs prepare students for applying acquired critical VL skills in other content areas such as social studies, geography, or science where a mix of visual and written information need to be processed and analyzed (see Table 1 for examples).
  • WLPBs offer learning standards-based critical literacy skills through VL practices regardless of reading, writing, and speaking abilities, content or socio-cultural or background. Thus, with WLPBs everyone has equal access to practicing their development of visual literacy skills, including multilingual learners.
  •  It is easier to activate intrinsic curiosity to engage with the visual information because everyone has an equal chance to engage uniquely with the content with a variety of acceptable interpretations rather than only one right answer.
  • ELA skills practices with WLPBs can be easily scaffolded. For students with more basic skills, only a select number of images could be used, simpler sentence frames for oral or written responses can be provided. More advanced students can benefit from and be challenged with more complex sentence structures to use, and more complex and detailed prompting questions. For ideas to prompt questions that strengthen VL skills with WLPBs, see Tables 2.  For sentence frames to be used when verbalizing interpretations of WLPB images, see Table 3.
  • WLPBs allow for easy assessment of students’ critical, aesthetic and social-emotional comprehension and interpretation skills without being hindered by low writing skills. Oral performance rubrics can contain criteria such as ability to (1) summarize sequence of events, (2) make and revise predictions, (3) formulate questions, (4) describe emotional impact of images, (5) draw inferences, (6) connect story parts to personal experiences/ other real-life events, (7) use detailed descriptors to relate social-emotional story components and express empathy.

Ways to foster active use of visual literacy skills using WLPBs

For each of the VL skills areas, namely aesthetic skills, affective skills, critical thinking, and text comprehension, the following tables provide a) ideas for questions to activate students’ in-depth engagement with a WLPB (Table 2), and b) sentence frames with simpler and more complex structures for students to use to share their interpretations including dialog structures to discuss similarities and differences in story interpretations (Table 3). The sentence and dialog structures can be available to students on flip charts, table tents or flash cards to use during discussion time with each other or in response to teacher questions.

Table 2: Questions to activate critical engagement with visual imagery

VL Skill areaAsk students …
Aesthetic skillshow the author created a certain mood (i.e. suspense, fear, worry, excitement, joy) with colors, perspectives, item or character details and how that impacts the reader/viewer.

to identify how the author created the images in a page or in the whole book

why they like or not like certain images

what question/s they would like to ask the illustrator? Why?
Affective skills (compassion, emotions, relation to self, world, others)how they experience characters, events and
why they feel like that

how they or others they care about were in the situation of certain characters in certain situations and why.

how they would change the story for a different or the same main message.

to relate to a character, story event, emotion presented based on a personal experience or what they have watched on TV/in movies before.

to create questions about a story step, character.
Critical thinkingto give reasons for opinions/interpretations and prompt for direct connection to details in the WLPBs.

to compare and contrast their interpretations with those of peers. Prompt them to get reasons that relate back to details in the imagery and their personal experiences.

to predict, or revise a previous idea

to make connections to other readings or learning experiences in other disciplines in school, or outside of school or world events

what they sense (smell, hear, taste, feel) when they look at certain pages and why that might occur

to share what the story means them personally and why. 

Table 3: Sample sentence frames for discussions that foster VL

VL Skills areaSentence frames for students
Aesthetic skillsSimpler structures:
The color/s make me feel…/ wonder if… /realize that…

I like the image on page…. because…

I feel I look at the page from (above, below). This makes me feel…

More complex structures:
I think the author used …. (water colors, thick paint, chalk, different paper) to make the reader think that…/feel as if….

The top down/bottom up/eye-to-eye level perspective causes an impression of…./makes the viewer experience…..

The color/s of… evoke the feeling of… because…
Affective skills (compassion, emotions, relation to self, world, others)Simpler structures:
The detail from image reminds me of … (something in my world, another character in a story/historic event, current event)

I feel for…. because….

If I were in this situation, I would….

More complex structures:
The expression of…/event on this page causes me to think about …

This story makes me want to …. help… by…..ing….

I can relate to… because I saw/read about… that…/I experienced something similar when….
Critical thinkingSimpler structures:
I wonder/would like to know why… /if…

I like/don’t like what…. did/happened because….

I predict/conclude that…  because

More complex structures:
Seeing…(detail from image), I wonder if/why/when…

Looking at (detail from image), I predict/infer/conclude that…

I agree/disagree with how … (character action) because….
Story comprehensionSimpler structures:
This page/story is about…./tells me that….

First, …. (action in story) and then…… (next action), then (next action). Lastly, (last action, resolution).…

More complex structures:
The main message of the story is….
I conclude this because…….catches my attention because….

Looking at… (detail from image), I get the impression that….

I think this story wants me to realize that….
T he story begins with….Then, …..Afterwards, … because…, the story continues with…, …
Finally, … (more variety of transitions and sentences)
    Dialog structuresExpressing Agreement
I agree with you because I felt/thought….

I also wondered about…/asked myself why….

I also interpreted…. to mean…

Expressing Difference
Interesting. I see this totally differently. I understood (evidence from story)…. to mean.…. because…

I understood/reacted to ….  differently. For me, …… because….

As opposed to your interpretation/prediction/inference/reaction,
I …predicted/inferred/ thought/felt…. because…

I hear you- but I see … (character/problem/…) differently.
For me, … because….

Comparing- contrasting
When I compare your interpretation to mine,

I see we overlap in…. But we see… differently.

While you think…, I think…… Why do you…?
How come?

Even though I agree with you on…. , I interpreted…. differently because… For example, …

Compared to what you said about…., I concluded….

Asking for clarification
What exactly do you mean when you say….?

Let me see if I understand you correctly. You are saying that…..

Am I understanding this correctly? You mean to say…..

Summarizing a peer’s comment
So, in sum, you think…. because….

So, from your perspective, … because….

So, your group interpreted… Therefore, you….

Referring to a section in the book (to provide evidence)
I infer/predict/ conclude that… I say that because on page x….

On page x/, do you see how the illustrator….? That makes me think/conclude/predict/infer that….  That gives me the feeling that…

On the right/left top/bottom/in the middle of page…/, I noticed that…

The…. on page x in the middle caught my attention because… This makes me think/predict/conclude/infer that….
For over 20 years, Dr. Elke Schneider has been a professor of literacy, special education, and multilingual learner education at Winthrop University, Rock Hill, South Carolina.

Navigating (and Teaching) Among Streams of Meaning

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by Jason D. DeHart

“You spend too much time on the Internet,” a student said to me one day. She was in midst of a conversation with some of her peers using a recently coined bit of young adult jargon. When I joined the chat with knowledge of the term, she shared this admonition.

Teaching adolescents is both challenging and enriching. As in my time navigating my own period of adolescence, students are engaged in connected experiences that follow multiple streams of conversation – fandom, affinity, digital gaze, and more – all with the notion of community and belonging in mind. There is an always-changing multimedia flow of trends and treasured knowledge, often disseminated by digital platforms and what appears to be word of mouth.

Considering the literacy lives of the youth I work with daily, there is a clear sense of multiple channel navigation. Elements of identity weave together cultural practices and notes from popular culture. Youth are, indeed, like buoys among the stream of social media and technological message, including wider avenues of jargon and trend. They are purveyors of this wide range of culture, as well as curators of the space – whether they are fully aware of this aspect of their agency or not.

Spaces of Joy and Fandom

As Riesco and Goering (2025) recently explored, the anchor of popular culture continues to be part of adolescent practices. These changes in popular focus and language are fascinating from a researcher’s perspective, as well as a source of joy as an educator. This attention toward youth as the center of popular culture is hardly new – indeed, the mall culture of the 1980s and 1990s, as well as changing forms of music consumption have tracked with young people from the origin of the commercial. As a youth myself in the 1980s and 1990s, I was first the focal point of animation and branding that included popular characters; as an adult now reliving those days, I am a target of nostalgia branding. This is the sense of agency that companies do not necessarily consider when they are engaged in transmedia branding – they are handing their power over to youth, whose role is then to take up a particular trend and exercise this focal point of pop culture for so long as their engagement affords.

Indeed, language is always changing and the markers of what it means to be current are in constant flux. The popularity of comics is one site of further joy, as these texts were part of my literacy practices as a young reader and composer. While stakeholders in the film industry grapple with superhero fatigue, digital comics and manga continue to be mainstays of popularity (Benatti, 2024; Lowe, 2024). Students in my classroom autonomously engage with web comics during independent reading times, as well as graphic novels about popular characters like Blue Beetle and Plastic Man.

Critical Approaches and Boundaries

This collective sense of branding and messaging across multiple streams of meaning carries with it a series of significant questions for educators, especially those concerned with literacy. Rather than ask the question of how to stay relevant, I am curious about what is already continuously relevant about our pedagogy and about the series of actions and practices which result in or add to literacy development.

These practices are not limited to reading. Last year, I partnered with the media specialist at my school to engage in a grant-funded project that allowed students to read historically-based comics, select comics for their own reading choice, and then create one-page comics in response. Students were exposed to the range of stories, from superhero narratives to memoir, and their comics reflected this variance. Some composed responses included fantasy elements, while others documented friendships and other grounded experiences. In terms of composing, some students planned and developed their responses with traditional tools (paper, pencils, markers), while others used AI to brainstorm and plan their work and digital tools (Canva, Pixton) to create their responses.

My students are poised with a teacher whose positionalities exist alongside a variety of borders – completely up for popular character study alongside or even instead of the canon, yet (appropriately) critical of the ways that technology can be used to subvert multistep processes. I am an educator who is always interested in the step of thinking that occurs between teaching/assignment and turn-in.

Sometimes this means that I critique the material with which I am asking students to engage. Literacy is part of a wider ecosystem for adolescents, not an end. Older readers link engaged reading with topics that are relevant and interesting to them. VanderVelden and Apedoe (2025) recently explored the relationship of reading motivation and learning environment for adolescents, noting one particular area of importance. This area was inquiry – that is, readers needed to be engaged in an inquisitive set of discovery and problem-solving practices in order to be motivated. The purpose of the reading activity had to be clearly and clearly situated.

The Present and the Future

I continue to ponder and explore the best ways to teach my students. At times, I anachronistically reference prior trends to be ironic. At other times, I link my practices (like attending comics conventions) with student interests.

Literacy is also an expansive set of practices and interlinking set of ideas (Roberts et al., 2025). Effective reading and writing practices are linked within the wider space of conversations and culture, and they are reflective of the ways that people actually compose in daily life. This includes the digital and visual. I find that my identity as an educator in a cusp generation helps me bridge these links; that is, I remember what it was like to have one computer in the classroom, and to be expected to read the segmented literature presented in textbooks and answer the perennial questions at the end of the passages. I also remember what it was like to suddenly have computers at home, and I recall how these shifts only grew through the advancement of smaller, personalized technology.

I am not the teacher I was in 2007 when I embarked on my career, and I have no doubt that my instruction will change, refresh, and update along with the practices of my students as they continue to root and flow with questions of engaged citizenship, popular culture trends, and I contemplate what it means to be the educator that my students need me to be.

References

Benatti, F. (2024). Innovations in Digital Comics: A Popular Revolution. Cambridge University Press.

Lowe, S. (2024). Book review: Manga in libraries: A guide for teen librarians. The Journal of Anime and Manga Studies, 5, 254-258.

Riesco, H. S., & Goering, C. Z. (2025). Italian brain rot and skibidi toilets: Students’ joyful literacies in an ELA space. English Journal, 114(6), 23-31.

Roberts, C. A., Wilhelm, A., Allred, B., & Hudson, R. F. (2025). Expanding literacy: Caregiver experiences with literacy engagement for their children with intellectual and developmental disabilities. Exceptional Children, 91(3), 281-302.

VanderVelden, T., & Apedoe, X. (2025). The Relationship Between Situated Reading Motivation and Perception of the Learning Environment for Adolescent Students. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 69(3), e70023.

Jason D. DeHart is a passionate educator, actively engaged in finding what works for connecting readers with literacy practices. He served as a middle grades English teacher for eight years, has worked at the university level at Lee University in Cleveland, Tennessee, as well as at The University of Tennessee, Knoxville and Appalachian State University, and currently works with high school students in Wilkesboro, North Carolina.

Text Sets That Build Curiosity, Confidence, and Connection

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By Dr. Rachelle S. Savitz

Have you ever handed out a text you thought your students would love, only to realize halfway through that they’re lost, disengaged, or overwhelmed? We’ve all been there. Sometimes, it’s not the students—it’s the setup. That’s where text sets come in.

What Are Text Sets?

A text set is a carefully chosen group of texts—articles, infographics, poems, podcasts, infographics, art pieces, even songs—that explore a common idea, theme, or question from different angles. Together, they build knowledge, deepen understanding, and give every student a way in.

Instead of relying on one “anchor text” to do all the heavy lifting, text sets layer multiple types of sources, each with its own voice, structure, and level of complexity, to help students make sense of big ideas. Sarah Lupo and her colleagues (2020) call this the layered text set approach: start with accessible, high-interest texts to build background knowledge, then layer in more complex disciplinary readings that push students’ thinking.

For instance, imagine a ninth-grade science unit on climate change and environmental impact. You might begin with a short infographic or video from National Geographic Kids that visually explains the greenhouse effect (an accessible, high-interest text). Next, students could read a news article summarizing local climate data or community responses to flooding—something concrete that connects to their lives. Once students have built some shared understanding, you could layer in a section of a scientific report or a peer-reviewed study that examines climate data patterns. Finally, students might read a commentary piece by a climate scientist debating mitigation strategies.

Each layer increases complexity: the first builds understanding, the next establishes relevance, and the final texts invite students to engage with disciplinary thinking—interpreting data, analyzing arguments, and evaluating evidence.

Josh Lawrence and Emily Phillips Galloway (2022) remind us that this balance of pedagogical and expert texts is key. Pedagogical texts (like the infographic and local news story) support comprehension by introducing key ideas and vocabulary. Expert texts (like the research article or scientific commentary) show students how scientists write, argue, and reason within their field. Pairing both types of texts allows students to move from “learning about science” to doing the work of scientists, where they get to analyze data, question sources, and communicate findings.

The same principle applies across disciplines. In English, pairing a contemporary poem about identity (pedagogical text) with a literary essay on voice and structure (expert text) helps students explore how authors craft meaning. In social studies, combining a political cartoon (pedagogical) with excerpts from historical speeches (expert) helps students analyze perspective, bias, and rhetoric.

When we layer and balance texts intentionally, we give all students the tools and confidence to enter complex conversations regardless of where they start. Differentiation happens naturally in this design: accessible texts provide shared entry points, while increasingly complex ones invite students to stretch their thinking at different levels of readiness. Because readability scores don’t tell the full story of what makes a text approachable, layering ensures that students who might struggle with dense syntax or specialized vocabulary can still engage meaningfully with ideas through visuals, multimodal sources, or shorter, conceptually rich pieces. In other words, text sets create multiple on-ramps to rigorous learning, allowing every student, regardless of reading proficiency, to participate in authentic disciplinary inquiry.

Why Text Sets Matter

Reading across multiple texts encourages students to build background knowledge, spot contradictions, and develop critical empathy, allowing them to see the world through others’ experiences while reflecting on their own (Savitz et al., 2024). The texts we choose send messages about whose knowledge matters and whose voices belong in the conversation (Savitz & Kane, 2023). When we design text sets with intention, we help students think critically, see themselves reflected, and recognize how knowledge is constructed (Sims Bishop, 1990).

For example, imagine an eighth-grade unit on migration and belonging.

  • Start with a short, illustrated article that introduces migration trends.
  • Add a poem or spoken word piece that captures the emotion of displacement.
  • Include a personal narrative or podcast that brings an individual story to life.
  • Layer in a primary source or historical document that gives context.
  • End with a local news story or youth interview connecting migration to students’ communities.

Each text adds a layer of meaning. Together, they help students connect ideas, think historically and empathetically, and practice disciplinary reasoning—all without relying on one lengthy or “perfect” text.

Understanding Text Complexity

Of course, choosing the right combination of texts isn’t just about variety – we need to think about complexity.

Text complexity isn’t simply how difficult something is to read. It describes how challenging a text is to read, understand, and use—and three interrelated dimensions shape it:

  1. Quantitative measures – the “countable” features such as sentence length, word frequency, and cohesion. These provide a general sense of difficulty (similar to a Lexile score) but can’t capture meaning, structure, or cultural context. A scientific article full of short sentences might have a moderate Lexile but still require deep disciplinary reasoning.
  2. Qualitative dimensions – the interpretive features of a text, such as multiple levels of meaning, abstract ideas, or cultural references. A novel like Jacqueline Woodson’s Brown Girl Dreaming (2016) may appear straightforward because of its verse format and accessible language, yet its layered exploration of identity, memory, and belonging invites readers to interpret its symbolism, navigate shifting perspectives, and connect ideas to historical context. The text’s qualitative complexity emerges through what students notice, question, and connect—especially when they analyze how Woodson’s poetic structure shapes meaning and how her personal narrative intersects with collective histories of race and resilience.
  3. Reader and task considerations – the human factors: who your students are and what you’re asking them to do. The same article can be “simple” when students summarize it, but deeply complex when they compare sources, critique perspectives, or connect it to lived experience.

These dimensions remind us to ask three essential questions:

  • What makes the text itself complex?
  • What do we know about our students as readers?
  • What’s the purpose of the reading?

Complexity Is Both Found and Made

Something to consider when we determine the complexity of a text is that complexity is both inherent and constructed.

  • Inherent complexity lies in the text itself—its structure, language, and assumptions about readers.
  • Constructed complexity is created through what teachers and students do with the text—the questions they ask, the inferences they make, and the conversations they have.

That means a poem, infographic, or historical document becomes rigorous when students engage critically with it—not because it’s “hard,” but because it invites deep thinking.

Consider two quick examples:

  • A history teacher uses a primary source with archaic language. Students decode vocabulary (inherent complexity) and then debate the author’s bias (constructed complexity).
  • An art teacher studies Picasso’s Guernica. Students analyze form and symbolism (inherent), then discuss its political message and relevance today (constructed).

In both, rigor grows from the interaction between text, reader, and purpose.

Bringing It Together: Designing with Intention

When you plan a text set, you’re not just building reading lists—you’re creating pathways into complex ideas. You can adjust the quantitative, qualitative, and reader/task elements to support access and rigor for all learners. Scaffolds like visuals, vocabulary previews, or collaborative discussions don’t lower complexity, but they open the door wider.

That’s where Lupo’s Quad Text Framework can help balance

  • Complexity – texts that stretch students appropriately
  • Variety – genres and modalities that enrich understanding
  • Accessibility – supports that meet students where they are
  • Relevance – connections to students’ lives and interests

When we design text sets that do all four, we help students not only read like experts but think like experts—questioning, synthesizing, and creating new understandings that extend beyond the page.

Final Thought

Text sets remind us that literacy is not one-size-fits-all. The magic happens when multiple voices, formats, and perspectives come together, and when we, as teachers, design with both challenge and care. Because the real goal isn’t to make reading harder. It’s to make one think more deeply.

References

Lawrence, J., & Galloway, E. P. (2022, April 12). Disciplinary expert and pedagogical texts: Implications for creating text sets. Reading Ways.

Lupo, S. M., Berry, A., Thacker, E., Sawyer, A., & Merritt, J. (2020). Rethinking text sets to support knowledge building and interdisciplinary learning. The Reading Teacher, 73(4), 513–524.

Savitz, R. S., Irvin, V., & Soulen, R. R. (2024). Developing an empathic analysis: Using critical literacy, dialogue, and inquiry with literature to explore issues with gender labels. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 68(1), 14–22.

Savitz, R.S., & Kane, B. (2023). Trauma-sensitive literacy instruction: Building student resilience in English language arts classrooms. Teachers College Press.

Sims Bishop, R. (1990). Mirrors, windows, and sliding glass doors. Perspectives, 6(3), ix–xi.

  • Literacy Cited

Woodson, J. (2016). Brown girl dreaming. Nancy Paulsen Books.

Rachelle S. Savitz is an associate professor of reading/literacy at East Carolina University. She was previously a K-12 literacy coach/interventionist and high school reading teacher. She values working with graduate students and teachers and learning with and from them. She explores the intersections of critical inquiry, culturally sustaining pedagogy, trauma-sensitive practices, and teacher self-efficacy related to disciplinary literacy and equitable literacy materials and curricula. In addition, Dr. Savitz is widely published and serves as president of Literacy in the Disciplines, 6-12.